Pakistan Resolution 1940

 The affairs leading to Lahore Resolution (Pakistan Resolution 1940) Muslim League had been trying for the last 25 years to reach an honorable agreement. The Pakistan Resolution contained the demand for separate independent Muslim States in the territory of the Subcontinent where Muslims formed a majority. Hindu bodies in general were highly perplexed by the Resolution. The Hindu press published leading news that the Muslim League had a dangerous design to disintegrate the country through the creation of Pakistan. The newspapers serving the cause of Hindu society started a propaganda campaign against Muslim League. Some Hindu bodies denounced the idea of partition as the betrayal of the Muslim minority that still is left in India. Quaid e Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah argued that India was not a nation. Therefore nobody could speak for all of India. Hindus formed a majority in the greater part of India and were entitled to speak for it. The Muslims of India are a nation and as such, they were entitled to speak for themselves.

Pakistan Resolution 1940

 

The Congress on the following two principles

1. Congress should recognize the Muslim League as the representative body of Muslims in India.
2. The Muslims of India should not be taken as merely a minor community. On the other hand, they should be recognized as a nation. 

The Congress did not give any importance to these basic principles on which a compromise between the two big political organizations could conclude. This was the reason that all efforts exerted by Muslim League for an alliance with Congress ended in smoke. Moreover, the recent two years of Congress rule proved that congress was not a national organization but was purely a Hindu body. The event shows that during its rule over India it worked based on hostility against Muslims.

Pakistan Resolution presented in Iqbal Park Lahore

 

By the end of the nineteenth century, the Muslims had come to the belief that Muslims and Hindus could never live together and any hope for Hindu-Muslim unity was not fated to be materialized such thoughts were so many times expressed both individually and collectively by Muslim quarter. Muslim thinkers from time to time had diverted the attention of Muslims toward separatism. The names of Allama Iqbal, Jamal-ud-Din Afghani, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Chaudhary Rahmat Ali, Muhammad Abdul Qadir Bilgrami, and Maulana Hasrat Muhani are especially notable in this connection. These Muslim thinkers after having minutely studied the affairs of the Muslim community of India and reached the conclusion that the only way to the establishment of peace in the subcontinent was to raise the 45 status of Muslim majority provinces to an independent state. This thought of separatism gradually gained popularity among the Muslims in India.

In the preliminary days of the Second World war, Muslim League demanded that no constitution should be enforced unless it got the approval of the Muslim League, that fifty percent of the total representatives of the Central Legislature would be given to Muslim League, and that rights of Muslims in the Muslim minority provinces would be safeguarded. The Viceroy in his announcement indirectly accepted the demands of the Muslim League in respect of the introduction of a future constitution and the safeguards of Muslims in the Muslim minority provinces. In fact, in the prevalent war situation, the British Government did not want to annoy either of the two big political parties i.e Congress and the Muslim League. Muslim League was satisfied with the British Government that if its demands were not accepted a noncooperation movement would be launched. It demanded that the powers of constitution-making should have resided in the Central Legislature in which congress members formed a majority. In this state of affairs, it became imperative for Muslim League to decide about its future program. The Quaid-i-Azam tried to bring home to the British Government that if the powers of the constitution-making were conferred on the Hindu Majority. They establish a Hindu Rule over the country. This would not be acceptable to Muslims and as a result, there would be every danger of an outbreak of civil war on a large scale throughout the country. A resolution is adopting the two-nation theory that had already been passed by the Provincial Muslim League.

On the basis of two nation theory the Prime Minister of Bengal Maulvi A.R.Fazal-ul-Haq moved the following resolution:

1. That it is the considered view of this session of the All India Muslim League that no constitutional plan would be workable in this country or acceptable to the Muslims unless it is designed on the following basic principles. 
2. That geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted will such territorial readjustment as may be necessary. That the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in North Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign. 
3. That adequate effective and mandatory safeguards should be specially provided in the constitution for minorities in the units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative, and other rights and interests in consultation with them and in a majority adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards shall be specially provided in the constitution for them and other minorities for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights and interests in consultation with them. 

Eminent Muslim leaders like Chaudary Khaliq-uz-zaman, Maulana Zafar Ali Khan, Sir Abdullah Haroon, Nawab Ismail Chundrigar, Sayyed Abdul Rauf Saha, Dr. Muhammad Alam, Sayyed Zakir Ali, Begum Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar seconded the Lahore Resolution which has also come to be called Pakistan Resolution.

Pakistan Movement from 1857 to 1947

 The Pakistan Movement from 1857 to 1947 is important for the creation of Pakistan.

Pakistan Movement from 1857 to 1947

Nationalism

Nationalism has been one of the most influential of the various doctrinal constellations that vied for man's loyalties since the erosion of traditional religion despite protean local variations. It has reappeared as a consistent set of demands and beliefs and social arrangements. Nationalism is a distinct ideological variety of social and political movements. Nationalism represents a man's state of mind or national consciousness of recent origin among the majority of people. In short, the core of nationalist doctrine is as under:

• That humanity is naturally divided into nations.
• That each nation has its own peculiar character
• That the source of all political power is the nation whole collectively. 
• For freedom and self-realization, man must identify himself with a nation.
• The nations can be fulfilled only in their states.
• That loyalty to the nation-state overrides other loyalties.  
• That the primary condition of global freedom and harmony is the strengthening of nation and state. 

 Nationality

If nationalism is the dynamic expression of the desire to live together as a free people in the future. Nationality is a prior condition for such desire. It is a non-political concept and can exist even under foreign domination. It is psychological quality conveying an ethical and cultural conception as well. According to Lord Bryce " The sentiment of nationality is that feeling or group of feelings which makes an aggregate of men conscious of ties not being wholly either political or religious which unites then is a community which is either actually or potentially a nation.

A.E Zimmern observed " Nationality like religion is subjective psychological a condition of mind a spiritual possession a way of feeling thinking and living. 

J.A. Rose defined nationality as " a union of hearts once made never unmade." 

Nation

The word nation is derived from the Latin word " nation which means birth or race. In the 17th century, the word nation was used to describe the French Revolution. The term nation was used in sense of patriotism. Generally speaking, a nation is a single people traditionally fixed in a well-defined territory, speaking the same language and culture.

Rupert Emerson defined it as a " terminal community". Bertrand Russell defined a nation as " constitutes of a nation is a sentiment and instinct. A sentiment of similarity and an instinct of belonging to the same group". 

A nation stands for the unity of the people organized in one State and action spontaneously as a unity.  Common capital of thoughts and feelings acquired and transmitted in the course of common will to live together in the future. Freely and independently increasing the common capital of thoughts and feelings.

Earnest Barker Observed that " The basic form of human community which we may call the community par excellence is the nation. All purposes body of persons concerning a territorial area and containing within itself of particular purpose societies." 

The Islamic concept of Nationalism

Modern western political concepts of nationalism, nationality, and nation lay stress on race, language, geography, culture, and common historical bonds in the past. While Islam repudiates all of them and seeks to make a nation based on spiritual and moral relationships so that people may help each other to all possible extents. Islam encourages and provides more opportunities for an independent relationship among men so that culture may prosper. Islam stands to provide the maximum possible chances for the fullest development of man's personality, belonging to any caste, race, and country.  Islam maintains that human rights are based upon morality rather than political, military, or any other kind of might.

The Two Nation Theory of both Allama Iqbal and Quid e Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah were right in claiming that Muslims of India formed a separate nation based on Muslim culture. 

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan's articulation  of Two Nation Theory

The third and potentially more important element of Sir Syed's perspective package related to the pattern of the Hindu-Muslim relationships at the national level.  Emerging from as liberal and enlightened a person as Sir Syed. His advice seemed out of tune with the times but was to prove quite prophetic and thus established him retrospectively as a man of great vision and courage of conviction. Before discussing this advice.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

 We may briefly refer to some important developments which began to unfold around that period and greatly influenced Sir Syed's thinking. Sir Syed had been a witness to the economic decline of Muslims and the simultaneous improvement in the economic fortunes of the majority community. Given the predilections of the ruling power. He could easily visualize an aggravation of the clash of economic interests of the two communities. At the same time, some extremist elements in the majority community started working for the revival of militant Hinduism. On the occasion of his visit to Punjab, a section of this group advised Muslims to give up their separate identity and merge with the other communities to regain India's past glory. It foreshadowed the movement which was later led by men like B.D. Tilak and B.C. Chatterjee inculcated religious fervor among Hindus through inflammatory writings and celebration of deities like Kali Devi which symbolized fear and destruction. The Hindu proselytizing of Muslims which had started earlier especially in Bengal under the influence of Chaitanya was now being vigorously pursued throughout the country by another movement called Arya Samaj, Swami Dayanand and Swami Vivekananda were vigorously asserting the superiority of Vedic Hinduism over the Western philosophy and by implication the comparison was extended to other religion-cultural ideologies as well. A separate movement for banning cow slaughter was also underway through beef was the main component of the diet of poor Muslims. Beef meat was cheaper than mutton due to the former's abundant supply and supposedly lower nutritional value. The majority community launched a widespread campaign for the replacement of Urdu with the Hindi language, for official work even in the northwestern centers of Muslim learning and culture al-through Hindi had already been granted this status in the Hindu majority area of Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa in 1867. The communal antagonism reached such a point that a french orientalist Garcin de Tassay was led to make the following observation " The Hindus are opposed to everything which reminds them of Muslim rule".

The sharp intellect of Sir Syed easily read the writing on the wall and he felt increasingly disturbed. It was not feasible at that stage to lay down detaining the future strategy of his community to deal with this issue but he felt duty bound to warn them of the dangers threatening their survival as a distinct entity in future India. 

Sir Syed had correctly perceived that ultimately the English would introduce representative institutions of government in India. He had been preaching Hindu-Muslim unity since 1867 but in 1884 Ripon's reforms initiated the long-drawn struggle for power between the two large Indian communities. Sir Syed apprehended that in the absence of adequate safeguards for Muslims who formed only one-fifth of the population. Their fate in such a scheme of things would be in jeopardy due to their economic backwardness, widespread illiteracy, and lack of discipline and organization among them. It will be a game of dice in which one man had four dice and the other only one. He warned then in December 1872 to 1885 delegates of whom Muslims were the only two who met in Bombay under the auspices of a retired British Civil Servant A.O. Hume and set up the Indian Nation Congress. Sir Syed did not oppose it but in 1887 a Muslim Badruddin Tayyabi was chosen as the present of the Congress. This made Sir Syed apprehensive because he felt that the Muslims were not prepared to partake in the political struggle on an equal footing with Hindus. He visualized that One common national organization would not be helpful to protect Muslims' interests and hence in reply to an invitation from Mr. Tayyabi to join this body, he retorted. I do not understand what the word National Congress means. It is supposed that the different castes and creeds living in India belong to one nation and their aims and aspirations are one and the same.

Sir Syed therefore at that stage deemed it advisable for Muslims not to join the Congress. He said " What happened in the Mutiny war 1857. The Hindus took a bath in the Ganges and went Scot free but Muslims and their families were ruined. He said  I object to every congress in any shape or form whatever which regards India as one nation. I am convinced that both these nations will not join whole heart in anything. At present, there is no open hostility between the two communities but on account of the so-called educated people. It will increase in the future he who lives will see. He saw his apprehensions coming true when communal riots broke out in Bombay in 1893 on the issues of cow slaughter and the playing of music by Hindus outside a mosque at prayer times. In fact, Hunter says that a series of "Fanatical riots" broke out in many of the Provinces and States " From Burma to the North West and Bombay." No Muslim of not Joined the Congress except one or two. In fact many leading Muslim institutions, personalities, journals, papers, etc. Joined hands in their indignation against the Indian National Congress. The Educational conference founded by Sir Syed continued to play the leading role in this campaign after his death. 

Sir Syed appears to have anticipated separate communal electorates in representative institutions when in 1883. He opposed the Introduction of the principle of election, pure and simple in a country like India where caste distinctions still flourish, where there is no fusion of the various races, and where religious distinctions are still violent. The views he was called an advocate of the two nations theory by K.M Panniker.

Subsequently, Sir Syed's advice to Muslims to stay away from the Indian National Congress was generally ignored by them within five years after his death and upheaval shook the Sub-continent. This made the people recall his apprehensions about the communal problems in the subcontinent. Wolpert also regards his presentation of the Muslim case as the earliest modern interpretation of the two-nation theory.

Bangladesh Partition 1971 separation of East Pakistan

 The Separation of East Pakistan or the Partition of Bangladesh is a painful event in the history of Pakistan. Usually, contemporary characters and events are considered responsible for it. The fact is that its causes lie deep in the history of Pakistan beyond the temporal frontiers of 1947.

Creation of Bangladesh 1971

Sheikh Mujeeb's six points Election 1970-71  

Sheikh Mujeeb ur Rehman was the founder of Bangladesh (East Pakistan). He played an important role in the separation between the Government of Ayub Khan and Yahya Khan Martial law administrators. He presented the formula of separation popularly known as Mujeeb's six points. The government of Pakistan disagreed with him and his party Awami League. They have shown an extremely rigid position on these points before the 1970 elections. He was popular in Bengal for the implementation of six points. They arouse civil disobedience and defy the authority of the central government. A force of Freedom fighters known as Mukhti Bahini jammed the civil administration. In this scenario, India supported them and paved the way for the Awami League to declare the independence of Bangladesh as they cut-off supplies from west Pakistan to East Pakistan. 

 

Bangladesh Flag

The Six points Formula of Sheikh Mujeeb ur Rehman is as follows 

1. The federal parliamentary system represents of the province on the bases of population.

2. The Federal Government restricts foreign affairs, defense, and currency only.

3. The Federal Reserve system should be separated into east and west Wings.

4. The power of taxes collection should be implemented by Provinces.

5. The separate foreign exchange accounts for each Wing. 

6. East Pakistan should have paramilitary forces under provincial control.

Sheikh Mujibur Rehman, Bangladesh

 Election of 1970-71

The elections of 1970-71 are considered the first free and fair elections in Pakistan, yet is led to the disintegration of Pakistan. The results of the elections led to the victory of Sheikh Mujeeb's Awami league gained a majority of 160 seats of the National assembly out of which only 7 candidates belong to west Pakistan. The people's Party of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto won 81 seats in West Pakistan and no seat in East Pakistan. But unfortunately, both leaders not accepted the results and failed to maintain the Unity of Both wings East and West Pakistan. That resulted in a tragic division of the country and the separation of the sovereign state of Bangladesh emerged. 

Bangladesh Partition 1971 separation of East Pakistan

1. Reconciliation attempts

2. Military action in East Pakistan

3. International responses

   Role of India:

   • The geographical location of East Pakistan
   • The population of East Pakistan
   • India's air disconnection between the two wings of Pakistan on the pretext of the kidnapping of an airplane
   • Indo-Soviet Collaboration
   • India's military intervention
   •  Indo-Israel Agreement
   • Refugee problem

   Role of the Soviet Union:

   • Soviet military assistance to India ( Indo-Soviet treaty August 1971)
   • USSR's role in the UN Security Council ( rejection of Security Council resolution twice on 4th and 5th December 1971, later on, rejected General Assembly's resolution in Security Council third time)
   • Russian Strategy to prevent a direct Chinese intervention in the war 
   • Significance of the Indian Ocean

   Role of USA:

   • Internal matter
   • India rejected Nixon's appeal
   • India declined to accept UN observers.
   • Relief program through UN.
   • Cancellation of export licenses for $3.6 million military equipment.
   • Resolution of cease-fire and mutual withdrawal of troops in the security council.
   • Resolution in General Assembly.
   • The second Resolution in Security Council was vetoed by the Soviet Union.
   • Suspension of arms shipment and economic assistance of $ 87.6 million to India. 

    Role of China

   The rationale of Chinese Policy

   • Principles of non-intervention ( internal matter of Pakistan. Separatist movement not broad-based.)
   • Peaceful Coexistence ( opposed to the use of force. settlement of disputes through negotiations.)
   • Opposition to foreign aggression.
     

   
   

4. Pak-India war 1971

The 1971 war was fought between India and Pakistan 1971. The most tragic year of Pakistan's history. On the West Pakistan front on 3 December 1971, India attacked with the main attack on the Shakargarh sector supported by three brigades. The attack was halted in the track with heavy casualties effectively blocking and destroying the Indian penetrating army. In Jammu and Kashmir, Chamba, Lahore, Kasur, Sulemanki and Rajistan sector enemy inflated due to lack of forces in Pakistan. On 4th December 1971, the United States moved a draft resolution calling for a cease-fire and withdrawal of the Indian army. The bill was vetoed by Russia, and the other six resolutions including one by China were calling for a cease-fire and withdrawal of Forces.  

Simla Agreement 1972

The Agreement between the Government of India and the Government of Pakistan. Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on bilateral relation ( Simla Agreement) signed on 2nd July 1972. It led to the withdrawal of troops and the exchange of war prisoners. It followed the war between the two nations in the previous year that had led to the independence of East Pakistan as Bangladesh. 

Disintegration of Pakistan

The violent crackdown by the Pakistani Army created hatred among the people and the popularity of the Awami League increased and which led to the declaration of East Pakistan as a separate country from Bangladesh although Islamists and Biharis opposed the partition.

Separation of East Pakistan, Bangladesh

 

 

Two Nation Theory concept of Pakistan and India

The term two nation theory in its simplest way means the cultural, political, economic, and social dissimilarities between the two major communities, Hindus and Muslims of the subcontinent. These differences of outlook in fact were greatly instrumental in giving rise to two distinct political ideologies which were responsible for the partition of India into two independent states.

 

Concept of Two Nation Theory of Pakistan

 

 It was mainly due to these differences in culture, religion, and history that the Muslims of the subcontinent at least decided to demand a separate homeland to provide safeguards to their separate and distinct identity as a nation. Sir Syed Ahmad khan was the father of two nation theory, and Quaid-e-Azam Jinnah and two nation theory were presented to Muslims of the Subcontinent.

Founders of Two Nation Theory

The Evolution of two nation theory

Islam is an ideal embodiment of peace justice and social and economical equality and brotherhood. It deals with all walks of human life and is a complete source of security for it from every angle but as a result of living together with the Hindus for centuries, the Muslims of the subcontinent had also started deviating from the golden principles of Islam. They were keenly desirous of adapting their lives to the model of the early ages of Islamic history which separate Muslims' identity from society.

The whole of the Indo-Pak subcontinent has never been a single nation. It is so vast that in the past with slow and difficult communicate. A single ruler couldn't govern the whole of it. Even at the height of Mughal power under Aurangzeb, the southern tip of the subcontinent was independent and much of the rest of the country, except the northern local rulers, had a great deal of freedom.

National Identity

With the behavior of the Hindu nation, it was quite clear that they were bent upon wiping out the identity of Indian Muslims as a nation and ultimately merging them into an Indian nation through a gradual process. The leaders of the Indian National Congress would neither accept the Indian Muslims as a separate nation nor they were ready to give constitutional protection to their unique culture and civilization. With this attitude of them, even those Muslims had to be disappointed in the latter years of the struggle for freedom who had been in search of Hindu-Muslim unity for years under the flag of congress. Under these circumstances, all the sensible Muslims of the subcontinent had reached the conclusion that if they wanted to survive like a living nation, a separate Muslim State was the need of the hour for them.  

The Freedom of the Muslim Community

In Islam, there is no concept of accepting slavery and remaining content with it. For this reason, Muslims have always been loving democratic values because Islam aims at nothing but liberating man from being the slave of another man and including him as the slave of God. The Muslim Community in the subcontinent was compelled to be subjugated by the English as a result of the weak morale of its rulers and lords so immediately after the heroic martyrdom of Sultan Tipu they came to realize that anti-Islamic powers were bent on taking over all their liberties and that no Muslim ruler was in the position to face the challenges of Western Imperialism. Now they started to divert all their energies to launch public movements. This is a Historical fact that the movement started by Sayyed Ahmed Shaheed had been facing both Sikhs and the English for nearly three-quarters of a century.

A desire for an Islamic State   

Islam is a complete code of life. It resorts to regulating all walks of life by the teachings of Allah and his Prophet Muhammad PBUH. For this reason, the Muslims of the Subcontinent have been desirous of living within a state which must be an Islamic one. It must be strengthened and consolidated purely on the lines of a pious caliphate. With the study of the Holy Quran and the Shariah of the Holy Prophet Muhammad PBUH, the features of this ideal Islamic State would often come into their minds. Sometimes this same desire would be expressed through slogans of liberty and sometimes by proclaiming India as the home of infidels. 

Protection of Urdu

Urdu came into existence in the Subcontinent in the prime age of Muslim rule in these areas. The collections of Muslim arts and sciences were translated into this newly emerged language. It soon became very popular among all types of Muslims as it represented Muslim Culture and civilization. It was also important in the eyes of the Muslims because it had the translations of Quran and Hadith. After 1857 the Hindus under the patronage of the English started a movement to replace Urdu with Hindi, and as Sir Sayyed put it at this point. The paths of the two nations got separated the conflict on this issue paved the way for the establishment of the Muslim League. So it can rightly be said that one reason for the demand of Pakistan was that the language which represented the Muslim Culture should be Protected.

Great Mughal Emperors of India

 Some vast areas paid taxes to the Mughal emperors and then more or less went their own way. Some like the Marathas and Sikhs were never really incorporated into the Muslim empire.

 

Two Nation Theory concept of Pakistan and India

British India

Although Brittan directly ruled less than half of India by the 20th century. She had advisers in the many states which were nominally independent by 1911 there were more than 560 of these independent states ranging from a few hectares to a huge Hyderabad in the Deccan, with 220000 hectares. Though most do anything which the British did not approve of.   

British India

The road to Independence                

In the 1940s there according to the official census 254930506 Hindus ( 65 percent), 92058096 Muslims ( 24 percent), and 11 percent of their religions, Sikhs, Jains, Parsees, Christians, and animists. 

There were almost three Hindus to every Muslim in the subcontinent and though both could be found all across India, for historical reasons the Muslim people concentrated in the northwest and northeast. When belatedly the British began thinking of independence for India, they imagined a single state with one central government for the whole country, to handle vital issues such as financial differences and international relations, with less important regional assemblies for more local affairs. It was a politically neat and tidy solution that would have worked in Canada or in South Africa, where there could have been as originally English and Dutch states.

Religious Social economic differences              

Pakistan was created based on two nation theory both Allama Iqbal and Quaid e Azam were right in claiming that Muslims of India formed a separate nation based on Muslim culture. The culture and society of Muslims and Hindus were sharply distinct from each other an account of their different sources of inspiration, intellectual culture, and material life.

Using their religion social life and ideology, they formed a separate nation. There was no race consciousness and any type of superiority complex amongst Muslims. The democratic spirit of their faith united them distinct and solid national mass and there was no gulf between the constituent parts of the Muslim community.

Muslim aristocracy no doubt supplied leaders from all walks of life. It set the tone of social life and its fashions and as such, it was the life spring of culture and refinement. It is also true that habits and hobbies vices and virtues of aristocracy spread to the masses but the ultimate criterion of everything was morals and religion or the Quran and Sunnah. Whether it was the king or a common person if he indulged in any evil or malpractice the consequences were the same for both and they were liable for the equal penalty, It shows the religious consciousness of Muslims.               

Kashmir issue from 1947 to 2022

The Kashmir issue or conflict refers to the territorial dispute between Pakistan and India, which claims the entire erstwhile Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir, has control of approximately half the region including most of Jammu, Ladakh and Siachen Glacier. India's claim is contested by Pakistan which control a third of Kashmir. The addition, China also control is known as Aksai Chin. In Shaksam valley which was ceded to it by Pakistan in 1963. Pakistan has fought three wars with India in 1947, 1965 and 1999. 

Jammu and Kashmir

 Article 370 of Jammu and Kashmir conferred on it the power to have a separate constitution, a state flag, and autonomy of internal administration.

The other Article 35A of the Indian Constitution was an article that empowered the Jammu and Kashmir state for legislation and that permanent residents provide special rights and privileges to them. The special status of Jammu and Kashmir was effectively nullified in August 2019.

 

 

Article 370 and 35A  of Jammu and Kashmir nullified

 

 

Partition Dispute and War

In 1935 British rulers compelled the Dogra king of Jammu and Kashmir to lease parts of his kingdom, which were to make up the new province of the North-West Frontier, for 60 years. This move was designed to strengthen the Northern boundaries, especially from Russia.

In 1947 the British dominion of India came to an end with the creation of two new nations, India and Pakistan. Each of the 565 Indian princely states had to decide which of the two new nations to join secular India or Islamic Pakistan. Jammu and Kashmir which had a predominantly Muslim population were one of these autonomous states ruled by the Dogra king or Maharaja Hari Singh preferred to remain independent and sought to avoid the stress placed on him by either India or Pakistan by playing each against other.

Srinagar Jammu and Kashmir

The indo-Pakistani war of 1947

The tribals of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (NWFP) made rapid advances into Kashmir (Baramulla sector) after the rumors that the Hindu Maharaja was going to decide on the union with India. Hindu Maharaja Hari Singh and Prime minister Sheikh Abdullah of Kashmir asked the Government of India to intervene. However the Government of India pointed out that India and Pakistan had signed an agreement of non-intervention in Jammu and Kashmir, there was until then no iron-clad legal evidence to unequivocally prove that the Government of Pakistan was officially involved. It would have been illegal for India to unilaterally intervene unless Jammu and Kashmir officially joined the union of India at which point it would be possible to send in its forces and occupy the remaining parts.

Indo-Pakistan war 1947, 1965 and 1999

The Hindu Maharaja desperately needed the Indian military help when the Pakistani tribal invaders reached the outskirts of Srinagar. Before they arrived in Srinagar Maharaja Hari Singh and Prime minister, Sheikh Abdullah compelled negotiations for acceding Jammu and Kashmir to India in exchange for receiving military aid. The agreement which ced33ed Jammu and Kashmir to India was signed by the Hindu Maharaja and Lord Mountbatten.

Aftermath of war

The Treaty of accession signed by Sheikh Abdullah and Maharaja Hari Singh and his heir, the Sadar-e-Riyasat Karan Singh Dogra was ratified by the popular parliament of the kingdom, dominated by the popular political party of Kashmir, the National Conference led by Sheikh Abdullah under the leadership of Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad a constituent assembly of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir had ratified the State's accession to India and had adopted a constitution calling for the perpetual merger of the state with India. This constitution was promulgated on 26 January 1957 making Jammu and Kashmir as the only state of India to have a separate constitution.

Pakistan still asks for a plebiscite in Kashmir under the UN, however, India is no longer willing to allow a plebiscite as it claims that the situation has changed and that a large number of the Hindus who once lived in Kashmir were forced to move out due to threat from separatist activities.

The ceasefire line is known as the line of control (dotted line) and is the pseudo border between India and Pakistan in most of the Kashmir region.

 

Indo-Pakistan war of1965 tribals fought along with an army

 

Reasons Behind the Dispute

Ever since the Partition of India in 1947 both India and Pakistan have claimed Kashmir. These claims are centered on historical incidents and on the religious affiliations of the Kashmiri people.

Historically the Pakistani claim on Kashmir has been based on the fact that the majority of the Kashmiri population is Muslim and if given the option most Kashmiris would vote to join Pakistan or seek independence. 

Efforts to End the Crisis

After intensive diplomatic efforts by other countries, India and Pakistan began to withdraw troops from the International border on June 10, 2002, and negotiations began again but the UN was not serious to resolve the Kashmir issue which may cause other wars between Pakistan and India. The freedom movement of Kashmiris is intensifying day by day and many freedom fighters martyred in Jammu and Kashmir in recent years.

Endangered species of animals in Pakistan

 Animals are an essential part of the habitat these are beautiful. Due to the increase in Population, the forests are cutting, the destruction of habitats and overhunting of animals are. These number is decreased on the danger level they are at risk of extinction.

Wildlife is such a part of society that most people have knowledge of wildlife management. Threatened or endangered species are fish or wildlife that are threatened extinction that classified as endangered. Wildlife includes free-ranging, undomesticated animals in the natural environment.

Endangered species of animals in Pakistan 

The endangered species of animals in Pakistan are as follows.

1. Markhor
2. Indus River Dolphin 
3. Himalayan Ibex
4. Mountain Weasel
5. Asiatic Black bear
6. Balochistan Forest Dormouse
7. Sindh Otter
8. Murree Vole
9. Caracal Cat
10. Bigeye Tuna Fish
11. Marco polo Sheep
12. Snow Leopard
13. Cranes Birds
14. Green Sea Turtle
15. Long Billed Vulture

Markhor

Markhor is a national animal of Pakistan. It is a large wild goat found in Kashmir, the Karakoram ranges, and the Balochistan mountain areas. The body coat is brown to black in color. They have keen eyesight and a strong sense of smell.

The International Union of the Conservation of natural resources classified the markhor as an endangered specie.

Markhor

The name Markhor means that they eat snakes or have the ability to kill snakes.

Indus River Dolphin

The Indus river Dolphin is a toothed whale. It is found in the Indus river basin in Pakistan. It is the world's rarest mammal and most endangered specie.

Indus River Dolphin

Himalayan Ibex

Ibex is a specie of wild goat. There are different types of Ibexes. Himalayan Ibex, Alpine Ibex, Nubian Ibex Ethiopian Ibex, Iberian Ibex, Asian Ibex. The Himalayan Ibex live in Northern areas of Pakistan found in the Karakoram ranges.

Himalayan Ibex

Mountain Weasel

The Mountain weasel habitat is in the Northern areas of Pakistan Neelum valley, Lulusar National park, and the plateau of Deosai. They are small and active predators that live in mountain environments, color is from gray to brown. Due to human development, construction of buildings, and traffic on roads their population is decreasing at a threatening level.

Mountain Weasel

Asiatic Black Bear

Black Bear habitat in the mountain areas of Balochistan in Sulaiman mountains, Khuzdar district, and kharan district and southwest of Pakistan. They are found in a warmer climates. The body color is black to reddish brown in color. It is smaller than other types of bears. They are omnivorous and eat fruits, insects, and reptiles. People capture and raise them for circuses and left to fight dogs. It is considered an endangered specie in most of the area due to deforestation and loss of habitat.

Asiatic Black Bear

Balochistan Forest Dormouse

The Balochistan forest Dormouse is a species of rodent. They are found in the Juniper forest of Ziarat. Due to deforestation, their population is decreased. 

Balochistan Forest Dormouse

Sindh Otter

The two species of Otter found in Pakistan, are smooth-coated otters, and common otters. The smooth-coated Otters are found in Sindh, some parts of Punjab, and a few in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa are also called Sindh otters. They are declared as vulnerable in Pakistan.

Sindh Otter

Murree Vole

Murree Vole is a species of the rodent family. It is found in Murree hills, Kaghan valley, and Swat valley.

Murree Vole

Caracal Cat

Caracal is the wild cat of Pakistan. It is characterized by long legs, a short face, long ears, and long canine teeth. The body color is sandy and dark facial linings. 

Caracal Cat

Bigeye Tuna Fish

The Bigeye Tuna is a popular sea fish around the world and is a rare occurrence in Pakistan. It is also called Dhawan Fish in Pakistan. The size of Bigeye tuna fish varies from 3 to 40 kg in weight. Tuna fish is dark and fat. 

Bigeye Tuna Fish

Marco polo Sheep

The macro polo sheep lives in the northern parts, of the Hunza district of Pakistan Kunjerab National Park along the Chinese border. It is locally known as Ramapoy in the language of natives of the Khunzerav region around the high Khunjerab pass between Pakistan and China. The sheep is known for its long spring-shaped horns measuring 1.40 meters in length. The color is dark brown with white underparts.

Marco polo Sheep

Snow Leopard

The snow leopards are seen in the Hindukush and Karakoram ranges in northern areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit Baltistan of Pakistan. Snow Leopard survival in the country is at high risk.

Snow Leopard

Crane bird

Crane is a migratory bird of Pakistan locally known as Koonj. The hunting of Koonj is banned in Pakistan.

Crane Migratory birds

Green Sea Turtle 

Green Sea turtles are seen on Karachi Sea shores. The famous Sandspit and Hawksbay beaches are nesting grounds.

Green Sea Turtle

Long Billed Vulture

In Pakistan, eight species of vultures are seen. The Nagarparkar area of the Tharparkar district of Sindh serves as an important nesting and breeding ground for white-backed and long-billed vultures. They are seen in the Karoonjhar mountains.

Long Billed Vulture

Gilgit-Baltistan area

The Gilgit-Baltistan area is located in Pakistan. It consists of natural landscapes, rivers, and valleys.

Jaglot Deyamir Gilgit Baltistan

 Tourists from all over the world and especially from Pakistan have a great attraction to this region because of its beautiful valleys, plains, and peaks.

Gilgit Baltistan area

 

 

The location of some of the highest mountains on Earth also includes the K2. Three other mountain ranges meet each other first one is the Karakoram, the second Himalayas and the third one is the Hindu Kush the area is a "mountain paradise" for mountaineer climbers, trekkers, and tourists. The region has some of the world's highest mountains, including five peaks over 8,000 meters and the largest glaciers outside the polar region. 

The Gilgit-Baltistan spans some 550 km. It is a tributary of the Indus river and originates from the Rimo Glacier, one of the Shyok river that flows through northern Ladakh in India and the Ghangchay district of Gilgit-Baltistan of Pak tongues of Siachen Glacier. The widens at the confluence with the Nubra river. it enters Pakistan near the town of Frano some 40 km ahead of Khaplu and joins with the Indus river near the Hamayoun bridge. 

Shyok river of Gilgit-Baltistan

The Gilgit river is a tributary of the Indus river and it joins Indus near the town of Juglot where three mighty mountain ranges of Himalaya, Karakoram, and Hindukush meet. It flows past the town of Gilgit. The Gilgit river starts from Shandur Lake and Khokush lake. It is also referred to as the Ghizer river.

Hunza river is the principal river of Hunza in Gilgit-Baltistan. It is formed by the confluence of the Chapursan and Khunjerab rivers which are fed by glaciers. It is joined by the Gilgit river and the Naltar river before it flows into the Indus river. The river cuts through the Karakoram range, flowing from north to south. The Attabad landslide disaster in January 2010 completely blocked the Hunza river. A new lake now called the Attabad lake was formed which extends 30 kilometers and rose to a depth of 400 feet.

Attabad lake Gilgit Baltistan

 

Astor river is a tributary of the Indus river and one of the rivers draining the Deosai Plateau. Astor river joins the Gilgit river near the town of Thalichi.

Deosai range stands between the valley of Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan. It lies to the southeast of the Indus river gorge. There is a vast plain covering an area of 1502 square kilometers, bearing the same name Deosai. The whole area is uninhabited surrounded by rocky Mountains with an elevation of 4114 meters. The road leading to Skardu from Gurez passes through the Deosai plains. Burzil pass, situated in this area connects the valley of Kashmir with Gilgit-Baltistan.

 

Deosai range